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Figure 2.1 Molecular structure of perfluorinated alkyl substances.
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Figure 2.2 Estimated total global annual emissions of C4–C14 PFCAs (1951–2030) (Wang et al., 2014a).
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Figure 2.3 Modelled concentrations of PFOA in surface ocean waters in 2005 (Armitage et al., 2009b).
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Figure 2.4 Four-year time series of monthly sums of total (wet + dry) deposition of PFOA to the Arctic predicted by the MPIMCTM model (Stemmler and Lammel, 2010). The blue and pink bars represent modelled PFOA deposition assuming a log organic carbon partition coefficient of 2.06 and 4.06, respectively.
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Figure 2.5. Monthly mean concentrations of ionic PFASs and PFOSA in air at Zeppelin in 2014 and mean monthly PFOA at Birkenes, Andøya and Zeppelin in 2014 (NILU, 2015).
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Figure 2.6 Box and whisker plots of PFAS concentrations for PFAS groups and ΣPFSAs (upper) and individual PFSAs and PFCAs in air (sum of particle and gas phases) (lower). Boxes correspond to the interquartile range (25th and 75th percentiles), whiskers to the 5th and 95th percentiles. 2010 FOSAs and FOSEs are excluded owing to contamination in 2010 by MeFOSA and MeFOSEs.
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Figure 2.7 Concentrations of PFCAs, including PFBA (upper) and excluding PFBA (lower), measured in the GAPS program in 2009, 2011 and 2013 at three Arctic locations using SIP disks (Rauert and Harner, unpubl. data).
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Figure 2.8 FTOHs measured in air at Ny-Ålesund (Svalbard) between September 2011 and September 2012 (Xie et al., 2015). The grey line shows average temperatures during the air sampling.
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Figure 2.9 Estimated annual fluxes of PFCAs (PFHxA, PFOA, and PFNA) in ice cores from Svalbard, Norway (Kwok et al., 2013). [Note the original graph published by Kwok et al. showed fg/(m2 ∙ yr) flux units whereas the correct units are shown here.]
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Figure 2.10 PFCA homologue composition of vegetation, caribou and wolf in the Porcupine (Yukon) and Bathurst (Nunavut) caribou summer grazing areas (Müller et al., 2011).
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Figure 2.11 Comparison of PFAS profiles in caribou liver from the Qamamirjuaq herd (near Arviat, Canada) (Gamberg and Muir, unpubl. data) and reindeer liver, fat and muscle from Svalbard (Carlsson et al., 2012a). Results from southern Greenland from Bossi et al. (2015).
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Figure 2.12 Depth profile for total (C4–C12) PFCAs in Lake Hazen (Ellesmere Island, Nunavut) showing elevated concentrations during snow and ice melt (St. Louis and Muir, 2014).
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Figure 2.13 Comparison of PFAS concentrations and profiles in landlocked Arctic char from the Canadian Arctic, Svalbard, Faroe Islands and southern Greenland. Results from Canada are for muscle while liver was analyzed at the other sites. All data are for the period 2010–2013 (Annex Table A2.1/4). Data from Garsjø (2014), Bossi et al. (2015) and Muir et al. (unpubl. data).
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Figure 2.14 Comparison of PFAS concentrations and profiles in brown trout (liver) from northern Norway, the Faroe Islands and southern Greenland, as well as lake trout (muscle) from Great Slave Lake, Kusawa Lake, and Lake Laberge in Canada. Results are from Muir et al. (2013b), Norwegian Environment Agency (2013), Stern et al. (2014b), Bossi et al. (2015) and Evans and Muir (unpubl. data).
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Figure 2.15 Reported average concentrations of C6–C10 PFCAs in Arctic seawater based on eight studies (data sources in Annex Table A2.1/5). Sampling areas mentioned in the text are identified.
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Figure 2.16 Enrichment of perfluoroalkyl carboxylates (C5–C12) (PFPeA= perfluoropentanoate, PFHxA = perfluorohexanoate etc) and perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) in snow/first-year ice of the Canadian Arctic and snow/multi-year ice of the European Arctic relative to underlying seawater. Data from Bertrand et al. (2014).
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Figure 2.17 ΣPFCAs (sum of C6–C10-perfluorocarboxylates) in seawater from Barrow Strait (Resolute, Nunavut). Sample collection was conducted from the ice during late May to early June each year (Muir et al., 2015c).
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Figure 2.18 Spatial trends in PFOA isomers in seawater from the Canadian Arctic Archipelago and Beaufort/Chukchi Seas. Redrawn from Benskin et al. (2012a).
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Figure 2.19 Concentrations of PFAS (not including PFOS) in halibut muscle, shrimp, cod liver, eider and herring gull eggs, and harbour seal liver from northern Norway (Norwegian Environment Agency, 2013; Carlsson et al. 2016).
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Figure 2.20 Concentrations and patterns of a large suite of PFASs in ringed seal liver from northern Canada and ringed seal, polar bear and killer whale from Greenland. Based on data from Muir et al. (2015c) and Gebbink et al. (2016).
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Figure 2.21 Concentrations and patterns of C6–C16-PFCAs in plasma of black-legged kittiwake (Kongsfjorden, Svalbard) and in liver of common eider (Sklinna, Røst, Norway), herring gull and shag (Sklinna, Røst, Norway), thick-billed murre and northern fulmar (Prince Leopold Island, Lancaster Sound, Nunavut). Results from Norway are from Tartu et al. (2014) and Huber et al. (2015), and for Nunavut from Braune et al. (2014b).
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Figure 2.22 Mean contributions of C6–C15-PFCAs to ΣPFCA in eggs of five seabird species sampled from Prince Leopold Island, Nunavut, 2008 (Braune and Letcher, 2013).
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Figure 2.23 Trends of C7-C14 perfluorocarboxylates (ΣPFCAs) in landlocked char muscle from Lake Hazen, Char Lake and Amituk Lake in the Canadian Arctic (Muir, unpubl. data).
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Figure 2.24 Trends in C7-C14 perfluorocarboxylate concentration in lake trout muscle and burbot liver from Great Slave Lake (Muir et al., 2013b; Evans and Muir, unpubl. data), lake trout muscle from Lake Laberge and Kusawa Lake (Stern et al., 2014b), and burbot liver from Fort Good Hope, Mackenzie River (Stern et al., 2014a).
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Figure 2.25 Temporal trends in PFOA, PFNA, PFDA, PFUnDA (ng/g ww) in liver tissue of ringed seals from Qeqertarsuaq (West Greenland) and Ittoqqortoormiit (East Greenland). Results reproduced from Rigét et al. (2013).
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Figure 2.26 Temporal trends of total PFCAs (sum C7–C14-PFCAs) in ringed seal liver from four locations (SE Beaufort Sea= Sachs Harbour and Ulukhaktok; Lancaster Sound=Resolute, Grise Fiord and Arctic Bay; W. Hudson Bay = Arviat; E Baffin Is = Pangnirtung, Pond Inlet and Qikiqtarjuaq) in the Canadian Arctic (Muir et al., 2014). Blue lines represent trend; green lines represent 2-year moving average; larger red symbols and vertical lines are annual means and standard deviations.
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Figure 2.27 Temporal trends in ΣPFCAs in beluga liver samples from the Cook Inlet and Chukchi Sea (northwest Alaska) reported by Reiner et al. (2011) and from the southern Beaufort Sea and Cumberland Sound stocks (Tomy et al., 2011; Tomy and Loseto, 2014). Symbols represent geometric mean concentrations. Vertical bars are 95% confidence intervals for the Alaskan results and minimum and maxima for the Canadian samples.
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Figure 2.28 Temporal trends in geometric mean concentration of ΣPFCA and PFOS in the liver of western Hudson Bay bears (2007–2014) and southern Hudson Bay bears (2007–2014) (Letcher et al., unpubl. data). Error bars are standard deviations (SDs). Sample numbers are shown above bars. Data not corrected for sex, age or diet.
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Figure 2.29 Temporal trends in PFOA, PFNA, PFDA, and PFUnDA in polar bear liver from Ittoqqortoormiit (East Greenland), after Rigét et al. (2013).
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Figure 2.30 Mean (± SE) annual concentrations of total perfluorinated carboxylates (sum of C6–C14-PFCA) in eggs of northern fulmars and thick-billed murres from Prince Leopold Island, 1975–2014 (Braune, 2015).
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Figure 2.87 Hexachlorobutadiene (HCBD).
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Figure 2.88 Temperature and HCBD concentrations measured in air (gas and particle phase together) at Alert station in Nunavut, Canada over the period 2002–2012 (Hung, unpubl. data).
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Figure 2.89 Structure of current-use pesticides detected in Arctic media.
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Figure 2.90 Global pesticide market by type as estimated for 2007 (US EPA, 2011b). ‘Other’ includes nematicides, fumigants, and miscellaneous conventional chemicals used as pesticides such as sulfur, petroleum oil, and sulfuric acid.
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Figure 2.91 Trends in the deposition of current use pesticides in the Holtedahlfonna ice cap (Svalbard) (Ruggirello et al., 2010).
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Figure 2.92 Annual net deposition fluxes of CUPs in snow segments from a snow pit dug on the Devon Island Ice Cap in 2008 (Zhang et al., 2013).

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Figure 2.93 Mean concentrations (± standard deviation) of α- and β-endosulfan and endosulfan sulfate in Great Slave Lake burbot liver and lake trout muscle and sea-run char muscle (Evans and Muir, unpubl. data), landlocked Arctic char (Salvelinus alpinus) muscle (and salmon from east Hudson Bay; Kelly et al. 2007). Results from Kelly et al. (2007) are geometric means converted to wet weight. Reproduced from Muir et al. (2013b).
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Figure 2.94 Organochlorine pesticides and current-use pesticides in Arctic surface seawater collected between 1993 and 2013. Red bars are median concentrations, while red diamonds and dots are arithmetic means and geometric means, respectively. Vertical bounds of blue boxes indicate 25th and 75th percentiles, whiskers indicate the range, with lower arrows for samples below the instrument detection limit. Dacthal (DAC), chlorpyrifos (CPF), chlorothalonil (CHT), endosulfan sulfate (ENDO SUL), α-endosulfan (α-ENDO), β-endosulfan (β-ENDO), trifluralin (TFN) (after Jantunen et al., 2015b).
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Figure 2.95 Concentrations of current-use pesticides in the unbound and dissolved phase and particulate phase of seawater collected from three Arctic locations between 2007 and 2010. Only concentrations above the method detection limit (MDL) are shown. Modified from Morris et al. (2016).

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Figure 2.96 Trophic dilution of current-use pesticides (CUPs) in the polar bear-ringed seal food web, based on data from three food chains sampled across the Canadian Arctic, illustrated by log plots of CUP concentration versus trophic level (Morris et al., 2016).

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Figure 2.97 Temporal trends of current use pesticides measured in air in the western Arctic Ocean collected during oceanographic surveys between 1999 and 2013. Data show arithmetic mean concentrations. Graphic from Jantunen (2014) and data from Jantunen et al. (2015b). Expeditions, listed by year, traversed the Bering-Chukchi Seas (BERPAC-1993), central Canada Basin to the North Pole (AOS-1994) and the Canadian Archipelago (TNW-1999, IPY-2007, IPY-2008, ArcticNet-2010, ArcticNet-2011, ArcticNet-2013).
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Figure 2.98 Trends in concentration of α-endosulfan at Little Fox Lake (Yukon) from 2007 to 2014 using a super-high volume sampler and a flow-through passive sampler (Yu et al., 2015).
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Figure 2.99 Trends in concentration of dacthal, PCNB, tefluthrin, and trifluralin in air at Alert (2006–2010). Horizontal grey lines indicate mean blank concentrations (Hung et al., 2013a).
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Figure 2.100 Temporal trends in the concentration of total endosulfan (sum α, β and endosulfan sulfate) in lake trout muscle and burbot liver (± 95% confidence intervals) from two sites in the Great Slave Lake in the Canadian Arctic (Evans and Muir, unpubl. data).
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Figure 2.101 Temporal trends in concentration of α-endosulfan (geometric means, ng/g lw) in landlocked Arctic char from Canadian lakes. From Muir et al. (2013b) and Muir (unpubl. data). Error bars are omitted for clarity.
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Figure 2.102 Temporal trends in concentration (geometric means ± 95% CI) of total endosulfan (sum of α- endosulfan, β-endosulfan and endosulfan sulfate) in blubber of ringed seals (females and juveniles) from four regional locations in the Canadian Arctic (Muir and Houde, unpubl. data).
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Figure 2.103 Structure of pentachlorophenol (PCP) and pentachloroanisole (PCA). 

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Figure 2.104 Measured air concentrations of PCA in air at Alert, Canada 1993–2012.
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Figure 2.105 PCP/PCA ratios in pine needles collected in Canada (n=42) and Europe (n=283) for the period 1986–1994. Blue indicates predominance of PCP and red indicates predominance of PCA. Note that at the time of sampling, PCP was still used in Finland and much of continental Europe, but prohibited in Norway and Sweden. Despite the use in Finland, the PCA predominance is stronger in Norway and Sweden than in Finland, a pattern that is difficult to explain by long-range atmospheric transport of PCP from continental Europe. Maps courtesy of Hindrik Bouwman (North-West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa).
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Figure 2.106 Concentrations of PCA in a sediment core from Lake Hazen, Nunavut, Canada (UNEP, 2013d).
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Figure 2.107 Example structures of some organotins.
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Figure 2.108 Four representative polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs).
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Figure 2.109 Emissions of the 16 USEPA priority PAHs in circumpolar and neighboring countries in 2007 based on estimates from Shen et al. (2013).
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Figure 2.110 Source profiles of PAHs for the USA and Russia (Shen et al., 2013).
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Figure 2.111 Box-and-whisker plots of phenanthrene (PHE), pyrene (PYR), benzo[a]pyrene (BaP) and indeno[1,2,3-c,d]pyrene (IcdP) measured in air at Alert (1992–2012), Pallas (1996–2013) and Zeppelin (1994–2014). The boxes represent the 25th and 75th percentiles. The lines in the boxes and square symbols represent the median and the mean, respectively. All the outliers beyond the whiskers are shown individually. Yu et al. (in prep). 

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Figure 2.112 Time series of phenanthrene and benzo[a]pyrene observed in air at Alert, Pallas and Zeppelin. The boxes represent the 25th and 75th percentiles annually. The lines in the boxes and square symbols represent the annual median and annual mean, respectively. All outliers beyond the whiskers are shown individually. Yu et al. (in prep). 

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Figure 2.113 PAH profiles measured in the seasonal snowpack from four lake catchments in Alaska national parks (Usenko et al., 2010). Bars represent the average percentage of total PAH concentration and error bars are relative standard deviation. Total PAH concentration for each lake catchment is provided in parentheses.
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Figure 2.114 Seasonally adjusted data and underlying long-term trends in two PAHs – phenanthrene and benzo[a]pyrene – in air at Alert as identified by dynamic harmonic regression. (Becker et al., 2006).
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Figure 2.115 Focus-corrected flux profiles of PAHs in WACAP sediment cores. Doubling times (t2) and half-lives (t1/2) are given where least squares regressions were statistically significant (p<0.05) (Usenko et al., 2010).
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Figure 2.116 The chemical structure of PCB11.

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Figure 2.117 Flux of PCB11 congener in Lomonosovfonna ice core (1957–2009) and surface snow (2009–2010) (Garmash et al., 2013).
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Figure 2.118 Zonally averaged global emission source strengths for CHBr3 and CH2Br2, estimated from three top-down models (Warwick et al., 2011 = Pyle et al., 2011 update of Warwick et al., 2006; Liang et al., 2010; Ordóñez et al., 2012) and one bottom-up model (Ziska et al., 2013). Graphic from Hossaini et al. (2013).
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Figure 2.119 Vertical distribution of CHBr3, CH2Br2, CHBr2Cl, and CH2ClI in the upper 320 m. Concentrations in melt ponds, sea-ice brine (two ice depths) and seawater just below the sea ice are also shown. Where identified, Alaskan Coastal Water (ACW), summer Bering Strait Water (sBSW), and winter Bering Strait Water (wBSW) are noted. (Karlsson et al., 2013).
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Figure 2.120 Structures of some high molecular weight HNPs.
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Figure 2.121 Bromoanisoles in surface water and air of the Canadian Arctic, 2007–2008 (mean±SD, nm: air not measured). Data from Wong et al. (2011).
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Figure 2.122 Bromoanisoles in ocean surface water and air. Data sources as follows: Baltic-2012 (Bidleman et al., 2014, 2015, 2016), Atlantic-1999 (Pfeifer and Ballschmiter, 2002), Atlantic-1993 (Führer and Ballschmiter, 1998), Atlantic-1986 (Wittlinger and Ballschmiter, 1990), Norway-2003 (Melcher et al., 2008), Arctic-2007 (Wong et al., 2011), Arctic-2007-2014 (Bohlin-Nizzetto et al., 2015), Great Barrier Reef-2007 (Vetter et al., 2009).
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Figure 2.123 PDBP congener profiles (expressed as percentages of Σ4PDBPs) in marine mammals living in waters influenced by Pacific versus Atlantic Ocean transport. From Tittlemier et al. (2002a). Numbers in parentheses refer to locations specified in that paper. Note: PDBPs are called HDBPs by Tittlemier et al. (2002a).
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Figure 2.124 Annual mean concentrations of TriBA in air. Adapted from Bohlin-Nizzetto et al. (2015).
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Figure 2.125 Examples of knowledge gaps on the impact of plastic litter in the Arctic (Herzke and Bjørklid, NILU, Norway; Halsband Akvaplan-niva, Norway).
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Figure 2.126 Composition of main plastic items found on a 100-m section of beach located on Svalbard and the Norwegian Arctic mainland coast (OSPAR, 2009b), and locations of the beach monitoring sites.
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Figure 2.127 Total number of plastic litter items collected on a 100‑m section of beach on Svalbard and on the Norwegian Arctic mainland (data from www.mcsuk.org/ospar/survey/export).
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Figure 2.31 Chemical structure of BDE-209.
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Figure 2.32 Temporal trends and seasonal cycles in BDE-209 concentrations in air at the monitoring stations at Alert (Canada) and Zeppelin (Svalbard, Norway) (Hung et al., 2013a).
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Figure 2.33 BDE-209 and HBCDD fluxes in Svalbard since the 1950s, as determined from ice core measurements (Hermanson et al., 2010).
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Figure 2.34 General chemical structure of HBCDD.
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Figure 2.35 Geometric mean concentration of α-HBCDD in adipose of polar bears collected between 2005 and 2008 (data from McKinney et al., 2011b).
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Figure 2.36 Concentration of ΣHBCDD in burbot and lake trout from Great Slave Lake (Yukon, Canada) (Muir et al., 2013b).
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Figure 2.37 Concentration of α-HBCDD in blubber of ringed seal from East Greenland (Vorkamp et al., 2012).
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Figure 2.38 Temporal trends in geometric mean concentrations of PBDEs, ΣHBCDD and BB-153 in western Hudson Bay polar bears (upper panel, 1991–2007: McKinney et al., 2010; 2008–2014: NCP, 2015a) and southern Hudson Bay polar bears (lower panel, 2008–2014: NCP, 2015a). Error bars are standard deviations. Data not corrected for sex, age or diet. The absence of ΣHBCDD in the graphic indicates concentrations below detection limits.
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Figure 2.39 Chemical structure of TBBPA.
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Figure 2.40 Global use of TBBPA in 2007 (data from Covaci et al., 2009).
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Figure 2.41 Chemical structures of bis(2-ethylhexyl)tetrabromophthalate (BEH-TEBP) and 2-ethylhexyl-2,3,4,5-tetrabromobenzoate (EH-TBB).
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Figure 2.42 Novel brominated flame retardants including EH-TBB and BEH-TEBP in air at Little Fox Lake in the Canadian subarctic (Yu et al., 2015).
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Figure 2.43 Novel brominated flame retardants in air at Alert (concentration below detection limits are not displayed).
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Figure 2.44 Mean concentrations and standard deviations of EH-TBB, TBP-DBPE and BTBPE in marine biota from Greenland (data from Vorkamp et al., 2015).
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Figure 2.45 Chemical structures of 2,4,6-tribromophenyl 2,3-dibromopropyl ether (TBP-DBPE), 2,4,6-tribromophenyl allyl ether (TBP-AE) and 2,4,6-tribromophenyl 2-bromoallyl ether (TBP-BAE).
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Figure 2.46 Chemical structure of 1,2-bis(2,4,6-tribromophenoxy) ethane (BTBPE).
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Figure 2.47 Fluxes of BTBPE, DBDPE and PBEB in an ice core from Svalbard (Hermanson et al., 2010).
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Figure 2.48 Chemical structure of decabromodiphenyl ethane (DBDPE; CAS number 84852-53-9).
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Figure 2.49 Chemical structures of hexabromobenzene (HBBz), pentabromobenzene (PBBz) and 1,3,5-tribromobenzene (1,3,5-TBBz).
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Figure 2.50 Fluxes of 1,3,5-tribromobenzene (1,3,5-TBBz) and pentabromobenzene (PBBz) in a snow core at the Devon Ice Cap in Nunavut, Canada (Meyer et al., 2012).
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Figure 2.51 Chemical structures and CAS numbers of pentabromoethylbenzene (PBEB), pentabromotoluene (PBT), 2,3,5,6-tetrabromo-p-xylene (TBX) and 1,2-dibromo-4-(1,2-dibromoethyl)cyclohexane (DBE-DBCH).
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Figure 2.52 Chemical structures of tetrabromo–o-chlorotoluene (TBCT), pentabromobenzyl acrylate (PBB-Acr) and octabromotrimethyl­phenylindane (OBTMPI).
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Figure 2.53 Isomers of DDC-CO: syn-DDC-CO and anti-DDC-CO.
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Figure 2.54 Structure of DDC-DBF (Dechlorane 602), DDC-Ant (Dechlorane 603), and HCTBPH (Dechlorane 604), after Bergman et al. (2012).
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Figure 2.55 Structure of DDC-CO related compounds: 1,3-DPMA, aCl10DP, and aCl11DP.
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Figure 2.56 Characteristic travel distance and overall persistence (POV) of dechloranes compared to other environmental contaminants calculated using the OECD Screening Tool assuming 100% of emissions to air and water. Compounds represented include POPs (α-hexachlorocyclohexane, hexachlorobenzene, CB-28, CB-101, CB-180); non-POPs (atrazine, biphenyl; p-cresol); hexabromocyclododecane (HBCDD); DDC-CO and dechlorane analogs (DDC-DBF, DDC-Ant, HCTBPH and Chlordene-Plus). (Sverko et al., 2011).
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Figure 2.57 Mean concentrations of dechloranes measured in various terrestrial matrices from Ny-Ålesund, Svalbard (based on Na et al., 2015).
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Figure 2.58 Generic chemical structure (left figure) of organophosphate triester flame retardants (also referred to as phosphate flame retardants; PFRs), where the R-substituents can be one of many alkyl groups, which may also be aryl and/or halogenated. On the right is a representative PFR, namely triphenyl phosphate (TPHP). Hydrogen atoms have been omitted for clarity.
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Figure 2.59 Average concentrations of PFRs in Arctic air for the period 2007–2016. Canadian Arctic: ArcticNet 2007 (shipboard August in the Labrador Sea and Hudson Bay areas), ArcticNet 2008 (shipboard Beaufort Sea in May-June), ArcticNet 2010 (central and eastern Canadian Archipelago, August), ArcticNet 2011 (shipboard central and east archipelago), ArcticNet 2013 (shipboard in Barrow Strait and McClure Strait), ArcticNet 2015 (central and eastern Canadian Archipelago, August), ArcticNet 2016 (central and eastern Canadian Archipelago, August). Alert 2008/09: land-based December 2008 to August 2009 (blank problems for TPHP), Alert 2015 (land-based, summer). Pacific Arctic 2010: ship-based Bering-Chukchi-Beaufort Seas summer 2010. Svalbard (Longyearbyen) 2012-2013. Eastern Arctic, 2014. Data sources: ArcticNet 2007, ArcticNet 2008, ArcticNet 2010, ArcticNet 2011, ArcticNet 2013 (Sühring et al., 2016a); ArcticNet 2015, ArcticNet 2016 (Jantunen pers. comm.); Pacific Arctic 2010 (Möller et al., 2012); Resolute Bay 2012 (Sühring et al., 2016a); Svalbard, 2012-13 (Salamova et al., 2014); Eastern Arctic 2014 (Li et al., 2017 EST).
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Figure 2.60 General structure of phthalate esters together with some examples: DEP, DEHP and DINP.
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Figure 2.61 Use of phthalates in the Nordic countries in 2012 (Nordic Council of Ministers, 2014).
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Figure 2.62 DEHP and DINP use in the Nordic countries (Nordic Council of Ministers, 2014).
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Figure 2.63 Structure of two SCCPs (C10H17Cl5 and C13H22Cl6) (UNEP, 2015b).
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Figure 2.64 Measured versus modeled SCCP concentrations in various environmental compartments of the Nordic environment (Krogseth et al., 2013c). Error bars show the range in measured concentrations. The solid line is the one-to-one line, while the dashed lines mark deviations of one order of magnitude. Numerical concentration data and units not specified.
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Figure 2.65 SCCP high volume air concentrations at Alert, Canada in 2011 (NCP, 2015a).
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Figure 2.66 SCCP concentrations in air at Alert (Canadian Arctic). The numbers in or above the bars are measured concentrations. Data sources: 1992 (Peters et al., 2000), 1994/1995 (Bidleman et al., 2001) and 2011 (NCP, 2015a).
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Figure 2.67 SCCP concentrations in air at Mt. Zeppelin (Svalbard) in 1999, 2013 and 2014, and at Bjørnøya in 2000. The numbers in or above the bars are measured concentrations. Data sources: 1999 (Borgen et al., 2000), 2000 (Borgen et al., 2002a), 2013 (NILU, 2014) and 2014 (NILU, 2015).
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Figure 2.68 Concentrations of SCCP in Atlantic cod from the Arctic. The numbers in or above the bars are measured concentrations. Data sources: northern Norway and Iceland 2003/2004 (Reth et al., 2006), Lofoten 2012 and Tromsø 2012 (NIVA, 2013), Lofoten 2013 and Tromsø 2013 (NIVA, 2014), and Svalbard 2012 (NILU, 2013).
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Figure 2.69 Box and whisker plots comparing SCCP and MCCP concentrations in biota from Svalbard, Norway in 2012. Tissues sampled include plasma (polar bear, ringed seal, glaucous gull), eggs (common eider, kittiwake), liver (Atlantic cod) and pooled whole body homogenate (polar cod). The box indicates the 25th and 75th percentiles and the horizontal line marks the median. Lines without statistics are below three valid data points (> detection limits) (NILU, 2013).
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Figure 2.70 Relationship between SCCP concentrations and isotopic nitrogen signature (NILU, 2013).
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Figure 2.71 Profile of SCCP concentrations in a dated sediment core from Lake DV09 on Devon Island, Nunavut, Canada (Stern and Evans, 2003).
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Figure 2.72 Change in SCCP concentration in beluga blubber from the southern Beaufort Sea and Cumberland Sound stocks. Symbols represent arithmetic mean and vertical bars represent minimum and maximum concentrations (NCP, 2013).
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Figure 2.73 Structure of linear and cyclic methylsiloxane oligomers (based on Dewil et al., 2006).
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Figure 2.74 Comparison between measured and modelled (Danish Eulerian Hemispheric Model, DEHM) results for D5 atmospheric concentrations at a rural site in Sweden (McLachlan et al., 2010).
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Figure 2.75 Measured and modelled (Danish Eulerian Hemispheric Model, DEHM) concentrations for D5 at Zeppelin (Svalbard, Norway) in 2011 (based on Krogseth et al., 2013a).
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Figure 2.76 Measured concentrations of D4, D5 and D6 at Zeppelin station in 2011 (Krogseth et al., 2013a), 2013 and 2014. Concentrations of D4 are reported as a range from non-detected to the upper limited detected. Concentrations reported for D5 and D6 are storage-corrected with a range representing the 95% confidence interval of the storage correction. Figure from Bohlin-Nizzetto et al. (2015).
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Figure 2.77 D5 concentration in sediment from Advenfjorden, Svalbard. Concentrations are presented on a wet and dry basis. Dashed horizontal line represents method detection limit on a ng/g ww basis (Warner et al., 2010).
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Figure 2.78 Linear regressions and Spearman correlations between D4 and D6 liver concentrations and fish length and weight for Atlantic cod collected from Tromsø. Dashed line represents 95% confidence interval of linear regression; r2 and rs represent correlation coefficient for linear and Spearman regression tests, respectively; ρ and ρs represent probability for linear and Spearman correlation to be caused by random sampling, respectively (Warner et al., 2014).
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Figure 2.79 Arctic regions where PPCP contamination has been confirmed in environmental samples.
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Figure 2.80 Distribution profile of ibuprofen and its major degradation products in sewage influents, sewage effluents and in the receiving seawater near Arctic waste water treatment plant (WWTP) facilities (Tromsø, Norway) compared to data for a more southerly latitude (Hamburg, Germany) (Weigel et al., 2004a). ‘Human excretion’ data from Bruchhausen et al. (1994) and ‘Literature data’ from Stumpf et al. (1996).
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Figure 2.81 Chemical structure and ring numbering system of polychlorinated naphthalenes (PCNs) (Falandysz et al., 2014).
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Figure 2.82 Concentrations of PCN homolog groups at Pallas (northern Finland) in August and November 2010 (Haglund et al., 2011).
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Figure 2.83 ΣPCN concentrations in ringed seal from the Arctic. Canadian data (arithmetic means; female seals) from Muir et al. (unpubl. data): Arviat (2011–2012, n=23); Kugaaruk (2012, n=14); Nain (2013, n=9); Pangnirtung (2008–2010, n=12); Resolute (2011–2013, n=33); Sachs Harbour (2011–2013, n=32). East Greenland data (arithmetic mean; 2006; female and male seals) from Rotander et al. (2012b): Ittoqqortoormiit. Note that the congeners included in ΣPCN differ for the two studies as specified in Table 2.9/6.
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Figure 2.84 Relative distribution of PCN homolog groups in blubber of beluga from Hendrickson Island, Canada (Muir et al., 2013b).
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Figure 2.85 ΣPCN concentrations in female ringed seals from the Canadian Arctic (Houde et al., 2016).
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Figure 2.86 ΣPCN concentrations in marine mammals from the European Arctic (Rotander et al., 2012b). Concentrations in pilot whale and white-sided dolphin refer to the secondary y-axis. ΣPCN includes the following congeners: CN-52/60, CN-53/55, CN-66/67 and CN-69. The graphic shows mean concentrations for n=3, each of these samples comprising a pool of 3–6 individuals.
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Figure 4.1 Broad classes of the 3743 chemicals with POP-like properties identified by the six PBT and LRT screening studies listed in Table 4.1.
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Figure 4.2 Tiered approach to early identification of chemicals of potential Arctic concern. Screening of large chemical databases and non-target analyses of environmental samples can be used as an initial step to identify a smaller number of substances with potential to be Arctic pollutants. In a subsequent step, the smaller pool of suspect chemicals of concern are then sought in environmental samples via targeted analysis, to confirm their actual presence in the Arctic. Those detected at consistent and elevated levels are then identified as candidates for further action.
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